Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The earliest surveys and excavations in Jerusalem were conducted in the 19th century, mainly by European Christians such as the French scholars Louis Félicien de Saulcy and Charles Clermont-Ganneau and the Englishman Sir Charles Warren, who were inspired by the wish to identify locations mentioned in the Bible. The Palestine Exploration Fund, founded in 1865, sponsored a number of excavations and topographic surveys. It was not, however, until the excavations of Kathleen Kenyon between 1961 and 1967 that the first modern, scientific archaeological work was conducted in the city. Since 1968 extensive excavations have been carried out in and around the Old City on behalf of the Hebrew University Institute of Archaeology, the Israel Antiquities Authority, and the Israel Exploration Society. The digs around the southern and western walls of the Temple Mount, which have reached the Herodian pavements, have revealed the steps leading to the Temple, the priests’ underground entrance to the Temple, and many religious objects. There are also notable remains of public buildings alongside a main street. Remains found within the precincts of the First Wall in the Jewish quarter bear the imprint of burning and destruction during the sack of the city by the Romans in 70 ce. Religious artifacts from the period of the First Temple have been discovered, and for the first time walls of structures dating to the 8th and 7th centuries bce have been found. One of these has been identified as the “Broad Wall” described by Nehemiah. A crucified body from Roman times, with a nail still lodged in the ankle, was discovered in a Jewish tomb at Givʿat Ha-Mivtar. Extensive excavations in the Citadel uncovered structures of the Hasmonean, Herodian, Crusader, and Mamlūk periods. Near the Temple Mount inside the walls, notable remains of an Umayyad palace have been found. The excavations since 1978 in the Mount Ophel and City of David area have revealed evidence of settlement dating to the 4th millennium bce as well as of Canaanite and early Hebrew settlements, the latter with a wealth of seals, epigraphic material, and everyday utensils. A most significant discovery was the Roman and Byzantine Cardo, a street running from the vicinity of the Zion Gate through the restored Jewish quarter to its Crusader part and crossing the Old City bazaars. The street has been reconstructed using the ancient pavement, columns, and capitals. The discovery of a Crusader church, hospice, and hospital of the Teutonic Order (12th century) in the Jewish quarter and the huge expanse of wall and towers (from the Crusader and Ayyūbid periods of the 12th and 13th centuries) between the Dung Gate and the Zion Gate made a major contribution to the history of the city. The flurry of archaeological investigation in Jerusalem has not been without political controversy, however. In 1996 the opening of an archaeological tunnel exit along the Western Wall ignited Muslim fears that the excavations might undermine the Islamic structures on the Temple Mount, and rioting ensued. Likewise, some Jews contended that renovations and excavations on the Temple Mount begun by the Muslim waqf (religious endowment) in the late 1990s might endanger Jewish cultural treasures.